Ch5

=Chapter Outline= 

Chapter 5: Pg 121-129
 I. Trade and Recovery in the Middle East a. Byblos i. One of the largest city-states in Phoenicia ii. Known for trade, especially purple dye b. The Phoenician Experience i. Water access through harbors ii. Turned to trade and industry for lack of farm land iii. Basis of all trade was shipbuilding iv. Founded Carthage near modern Tunis around 800 B.C.E and colonized Mediterranean islands of Malta and Sardinia by 700 B.C.E. v. Agent of cultural exchange, borrowed culture from all over eastern Mediterranean while introducing clay-lined beehives, glass blowers’ techniques and vats for Tyrian dye mixing vi. By 500 B.C.E. Carthage aspired to be an imperial capital of its own vii. Phoenicians excelled in writing, literature, various arts, seamanship, naval warfare, and ruling over an empire viii. Phoenician language yielded to Latin and Greek, thus losing almost all Phoenician literature 1. Phoenician writing encouraged learning and made business transactions easier, as it was more easily mastered than earlier languages c. Assyrian Empire i. By 750 B.C.E., after the Hatti’s extinction, the Assyrian empire was a contender for more than just regional power ii. Traditional local rulers were reduced to purely ceremonial roles, governors now ran provinces iii. Fear was the cement of the Assyrian empire 1. Ideology of dominance was prominent iv. King was not divine, but heroic and intimate with the gods 1. Tried to enhance power through claims of communication with forces of Nature – a doomed enterprise v. King Ashurbanipal 1. Did not dethrone was as Assyrians’ priority 2. Made a cult of literacy, looting learnings of Babylon for his library at Nineveh vi. Women in Power 1. Sammuramat a. Ruled in early eighth century B.C.E. and accomplished her son on military campaigns 2. Naqia a. Virtual coruler with her husband, Sennacherib b. She utilized almost all of the power of a king d. The Babylonian Revival i. Became the heir of Sumer, the resting place of all learning and much remaining wealth, after the decline of Lower Mesopotamia and the shift of trade upriver ii. Part of Assyrian expanding empire, but always tried to regain independence 1. 689 B.C.E. Sennacherib massacred the population of Babylon and deliberately turned it into a swamp 2. 649 B.C.E. Ashurbanipal deported half a million people from their homes to prevent them stealing back to Babylon iii. In the late seventh century B.C.E., after Assyria succumbed to enemies on fronts other than along the Euphrates River, Nabopolassar masterminded a Babylon revival iv. Babylon became an imperial metropolis, reaching its peak during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.E.) 1. Destroyed King Solomon’s temple at Jerusalem and deported Jews into exile 2. Fought off Egyptians at Carchemish in Palestine 3. Built hanging gardens of Babylon and city walls  4. Last era of Babylon’s greatness



Chapter 5: Pg 121-129
a. settlements extended to wheat-producing Sicily, southern Italy, north shore of Black Sea, rich markets of what is now France and Spain; city-communities at home, outreach by sea, colonies abroad b. colonies founded on divine advice; oracle at Delphi c. most colonists were outcasts, exiles, and criminals d. tried to reproduce Greek way of life wherever they went e. because of contact with other civ. Greeks developed writing system; used differently than other systems to preserve literature and stories a. gods are unpredictable and demonic manipulators b. Greek world run by weird, bloody rites, goat dances, orgiastic worship, sacrifices, signs, and omens c. 2 kinds of communities, called //ethne// and //poleis//, translate to tribe and city d. political institutions include hereditary and elected monarchies and states with ruling elites, defined by blood or wealth e. Greek traditionally viewed as creators of deomcracy- a state ruled by assembly of citizens; most Greeks disapproved of such arrangement f. oppressive system made slave of captives, victims of women, battle fodder of men, and scapegoats of failures g. families- groups based on monogamous couples and their descendants, basis for Greek communities h. Women’s function was to serve the community by bearing and raising children i. idea that Greeks were self made civ., owing almost nothing to other cultures, is false; heavily indebted to civs. including Egypt, Lydia, Lycia, Phrygia in Anatolia, and Ionian islands in the Aegean 1. Lived along the Aegean 2. practiced rites of fire, commemorated in spiraling incisions that swirled on the hearth 3. around 500 B.C.E. Thracian city-states united into kingdom and sought to expand their domain 4. in 429 B.C.E. King Sitalkes invaded Macedonia 5. Permanent empire was not successfully established and Thracian city-states struggled alongside more powerful neighbors 1. Illyria lay along the coast of the Adriatic Sea around 500 B.C.E. 2. most famous object-urn found at Vace in present-day Slovenia, depicting the luxurious life of an Illyrian court 3. Garamantes lived in North Africa in area of Libya known as Fezzan 4. climate was hot and dry; consequently they had to dig 1000 miles of irrigation tunnels 5. grew wheat and barley 6. described by Greeks as slave -trading elite, driving four-horse chariots; covered themselves in tattoos, ritual scars and wore ostrich plumed helmets 1. lived on north shore of Mediterranean stretching across central Italy 2. as their soil was difficult to plow depended on nearby island of Elba for iron and the most up to date smelting tech. 3. most of region lay under malarial marshes which were drained 4. language, which was difficult to understand, evolved into soothsayers’ tongue 5. theater was speciality; Romans use Etruscan word, //hister//, for actor 6. soothsaying was also speciality; read omens from sheeps’ liver and flights of birds 7. Etruscan cities earliest in Italy; Caere and Tarquinii 8. tombs imitated houses as if to prepare for an afterlife 9. Etruscan women able to go out of homes, attend games, dine with men; probably were literate 1. had an elite with resources to build on a large scale and the power to inspire heroic and terrible images of authority 2. Lady of Elche- sculpture from eastern Spain of woman with luxurious dress, elaborate hairstyle, grand headdress, enormous jewels; evidence of social status and wealth of society that produced her 1. Tartessos- Eldorado of its day; had the iron pyrites belt- area in southern Portugal and Spain, rich in copper, iron, silver, and gold 2. Greek stories tell us of shepherd king, Geryon, followed by Theron a powerful conquerer stopped only by Hercules 1. Zhou rituals to appease gods became ever more elaborate 2. King Lee ascended throne in 857 B.C.E. chronicled as failure-self indulgent and heedless of advice 3. was ousted in 842 B.C.E. by Xuan who was able to hold of foreign barbarians 4. however in 771 B.C.E. Zhou were moved east by invading barbarians 5. 6 century B.C.E. former empire transformed into jostling states 6. leadership within states chosen by assassination and massacre  7. leadership among states chosen by war
 * B. Greek Colonialism MA**
 * C. Early Greek Society MA**
 * D. The Spread of State-Building and City-Building MA**
 * a. The Thracians**
 * b. The Illyrians and Garamantes**
 * c. The Etruscans**
 * d. Spain**
 * e. From the Mediterranean to the Atlantic**
 * III Empires and Recovery in China and South Asia MA**
 * A. The Zhou Decline MA**



Chapter 5 Outline Pages 139-150
I. Empires and Recovery in China and South Asia A. The Ganges Valley 1. Known artifacts show that Harappa did not have much influence over the Ganges 2. Upanishads show how teaching was passed by word of mouth a. An early one tells how the powers of nature rebelled against nature itself b. They describe a cycle of reincarnation or rebirth 3. Matter is an illusion a. Sense organs can tell us nothing that is true B. Building Anew in Sri Lanka 1. //Mahavamsa// chronicles of the long-lived “Lion Kingdom” serves as a partisan political purpose: to justify the ruling //Sinhalese// 2. The //Sinhalese// had no known connection with the Harappans a. Became large scale builders and irrigators but produced nothing to rival the Ganges 3. Heartland of the early kingdom was in the northern plateu, where annual rainfall was heavy and painfully long dry spells were common 4. The //Sinhalese// colonists could not have built great cities without considerable feats of hydraulic ingenuity C. How these societies were different 1. They ignored traditions of earlier civilizations, and therefore proved that societies can arise without “instructions” on how to II. The Frustrations of Isolation A. Eurasia compared to the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa 1. Eurasia churned out readable documents that are read today, thus making them a huge focus in history compared to other parts of the world 2. The Americas and sub-Saharan Africa both had an environment that discourages communication and trade, while Eurasia had the opposite a. climate called for different ways of survival b. wind systems controlled means of communication and trade B. Developments in North America 1. The Dorset Culture a. blubber-fueled soapstone lamp enabled them to colonize deserts of ice, where abundant fat game was readily available b. began the use of the barbed harpoon due to fat game 2. Poverty Point a. worked in copper and manufactured fine tools and jewelry of colorful stones b. traded along the Mississippi, Red, and Tennessee Rivers c. forager settlements; biggest being a ceremonial mound that was incomparable to anything in Mesoamerica 3. New farming revolutions a. San Juan and Tuscon basins developed a new variety of maize b. Farmers began to work their way towards complete nutrition: maize, squash, and beans C. New Initiatives in Africa 1. Egypt weakened, and a Nubian state reemerged 2. Africans developed hard-iron technology, which was an independent discovery and a breakthrough in iron forging 3. Bantu languages continued their slow spread south, reaching what are now Kenya in East and South Africa 4. Trade was pregnant with consequences for the future III. In Perspective: The Framework of Recovery A. Recovery was possible because traditions survived, or because they were stimulating outside influences 1. Greece and India had to reinvent the art of writing B. Recovery sometimes happened in new places and among new people 1. After the collapse of the Harrapan world, civilization gradually emerged in India 2. Monumental irrigation works and buildings arose in Sri Lanka 3. Centers of activity and initiative were relocated in Mesopotamia and China, but traditions were never lost C. Traditions spread through neighboring regions D. People continued to make ambitious attempts to modify the environment, transforming new areas 1. The imperial experiments failed to take hold, but efforts to expand borders and dominate other states became a typical feature of regions where change was accelerating 2. Political instability stimulated technological change and multiplied the opportunities of patronage for artists and intellectuals E. The second half of the millennium was an age of sages in Eurasia as well as an age of robust empires 1. A zone of connected cultures began to form across Eurasia and the Mediterranean 2. Faint links began to put parts of this zone in tough with northern Europe and parts of Africa 3. Isolated cultures in the rest of the world were not able to develop large regional networks 

Ch. 5 Chronology, First Half (pg.121-136)
=Timeline: (pg. 121-136 detail the spread of the Phoenician and Greek cultures) =  I. 1,000 B.C.E.- Wenamun treats with King Zeker Baal Phoenicain colonization begins End of Greek dark Ages II. 800 B.C.E.- Carthage is founded by Phoenician traders III. 750 B.C.E.- Assyria begins expanding its influence, contends for power in the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean Greek trade expands and Greek colonies line the Mediterranean IV. 689 B.C.E.- King Sennacherib destroys the city of Babylon V. 650 B.C.E.- Ashurbanipal takes the throne of Assyria VI. 620’s B.C.E.- Fall of Assyrian empire, revival of Babylonian empire VII. 605-562 B.C.E.- Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, peak of Babylonian Empire VIII. 500’s B.C.E.- expansion of Greek colonies Unification of Thracian city-states The Illyrian, Garamantine, Etruscan, and Spanish civilizations thrive Carthage seeks to gain control of the Mediterranean IX. 100 B.C.E.- recording of the Iliad and the Odyssey occured

=**Chapter 5 Chronology (Pg. 136-150) - AL**=

= =
 * **Date** || **Information** ||
 * 1000s BCE || Bantu languages expanding southward ||
 * 1000 BCE || Civilization emerging in Ganges valley ||
 * 1000 BCE || Poverty Point in Louisiana ||
 * 1000-900 BCE || End of Greek dark ages ||
 * 900s BCE || Sabaean empire grows ||
 * 857 BCE || King Li ascends the throne ||
 * 842 BCE || Xuan begins reign for 46 years ||
 * 800 BCE || Upanishads probably written down ||
 * 782 BCE || Xuan (leader of Zhou) dies ||
 * 782 BCE || Earthquake hits Zhou ||
 * 750 BCE || Trade expands and Greek cities line the Mediterranean ||
 * 750 BCE || Nubian kingdom reemerges ||
 * 500s BCE || Greek colonies spread ||
 * 500s BCE || Zhou has transformed into states ||
 * 500 BCE || Thracian city-states united ||
 * 500 BCE || Illyrian, Garamantine, Etruscan, and Spanish Civilizations thrive ||
 * 500 BCE || First iron foundries along Niger River ||
 * 200s BCE || Buddhism begins ||
 * 100s BCE || Bantu languages reach South Africa ||
 * 100 BCE || //Iliad// and //Odyssey// probably written down ||
 * 500 CE || //Mahavamsa// probably written down ||

Chapter 5 ID Terms
= = Ch. 5 ID Terms, Part 1 1. Phoenicians -Byblos: one of the largest city-states of Phoenicia. It was a maritime culture along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. -Tyre: a big port near Byblos. It developed deep, rich purple from the crushed shells of sea mollusks, which became Western antiquity’s favorite and most expensive color. -Geographical and Environmental Resources: Phoenicians had waters accessible through excellent harbors.Behind htem, there were mountains of forests of cedar and fir for shipbuilding. They did not have much land to farm. -Cultural contributions: Phoenicians were agents of cultural exchange, borrowing from all over the eastern Mediterranean. They introduced clay-lined beehives, glass blowers’ techniques and their own vats for mixing Tyrian dye. The Phoenician writing system suited a society with wide literacy and cheap writing materials. It was easy to master and to use, which encouraged learning and made it easier to do political and commercial types of business. They invented the idea of an alphabet. 2. Carthage: by 500 BCE, Carthage aspired to be an imperial capital of its own, fighting to control Mediterranean trade. It had a fine harbor and fertile hinterland of flocks, wheat fields, irrigated gardens of pomegranates and figs, and vineyards. Romans defeated Carthage in three wars and destroyed the city in 146 BCE. 3. Different Writing Systems -Phoenician: The Phoenician writing system suited a society with wide literacy and cheap writing materials. It was easy to master and to use, which encouraged learning and made it easier to do political and commercial types of business. They invented the idea of an alphabet. -Logographic: based on logograms or syllables, sometimes a combo of both. Each sign represented a syllable or a sign represented a whole word. Both methods require the usage of many signs. since the leisured only had time to learn it, they were secrets of well-educated elites. The writing systems took less time to write and used less writing materials. 4. Assyrian Empire -King Tiglath-pilsar III: adopted the title of King of the Four Quarters, or King of the World. -Key ideologies and values: An ideology of domination is obvious in the remnants of Assyria that archaeologists have dug up: in the crushing weight of palace gates, the gigantic scale of the royal beasts the guard them, and the monumental sculptures, with their endless portrayals of battles and processions of tribute bearers. Colossal winged bulls carved at a palace were so heavy they sank the rafts when they were first transported. The king was not divine, but heroic and intimate with gods. Instability lay at the heart of the monarchy. The Assyrian kings sought to enhance their power by claiming to communicate with forces of Nature. -King Ashurbanipal: He was probably the most self-celebrated monarch in the history of the Mesopotamian world. He made a cult of literacy, looting the learning of babylon for his library at Nineveh. He was proud of the canals dug and the wine pressed in his reign, the 120 layers of bricks int he foundations of his palace, the offerings he made to gods. -Sammurat, Naqia: Naqia was virtual co-ruler with her husband, Sennacherib, the Assyrian monarch famed for descending on the Hebrew holy city of Jerusalem. She did everything kings did, from dedicating inscriptions to building a palace, and recieving important war dispatches. This shows that women were equal to men in society. Sennacherib: He was the Assyrian monarch famed for descending on the Hebrew holy city of Jerusalem. He co-ruled with his wife.


 * **Babylon/Babylonians**
 * **Nabopolassar**- “the son of nobody.” He is credited for the defeat of the Assyrian empire.
 * **Nebuchadnezzar II**- Ruler of Babylon who was a war fighter. Also he built incredible monuments and is credited for TWO of the wonders of the world. He was a theatrical genius, and he was ruler during Babylon’s last era of greatness.
 * **Greek in early first millennium BCE (P/S/E profile) (elsewhere described as Greek Dark Ages)**
 * **Significance of olive oil**- Olive oil could be grown at very high altitudes. It added fat and flavor to diets, it could be used for fuel in lamps, and it could be used to clean the body. It also helped promote trade in Greece
 * **Centrality of the Mediterranean Sea and trade**- Greece was located in the middle of the mediterranean sea, which allowed their trade to be more open because there were no geographical blocks from other countries (except water of course).
 * **Greek colonization and society**
 * **role of Greek religion in the colonization process?**- The Greeks started colonies based on god who spoke through oracles. A priestess would sit on a three-legged throne and make divine statements.
 * **culture of Greek colonies -** most colonies were made up of outcasts, exiles, and criminals. The Greeks, wherever they went, took some of their own culture with them. They built shrines dedicated to Greek gods, and cults from their home town.
 * **Homer; //The Iliad// and //The Odyssey –//** The Iliad was a poem written by homer about gods and humans on a military expedition from Mycenae to Troy, and the Odyssey is about a mans journey home after the war in the Iliad.
 * **Greek society**
 * **//ethne// and //poleis -//**translates into tribes and cities. Greeks lived in very small communities with different forms of political structure. These were the two main forms of community.
 * **early democracy (or the lack thereof) -**The Greek word “demokrateia” meant a land governed by an assembly of all citizens.
 * **Gender roles and hierarchy –** in the democratic form of government women and slaves were excluded. women married at age fourteen or fifteen, and were expected to keep quiet and do wool work, while the men did everything else.
 * **Revisions re: Greek values and concept of Greek “purity” -**idea that the greeks were a self made civilization, which allowed them to differentiate themselves from other cultures.

= = __Horseback hero/god__- his figure dominated Thracian art, in many examples he is performing heroic/ dangerous tasks: wrestling three-headed monsters, leading a bear, and in the midst of a battle surrounded by severed heads. These figures were saved because Christians would recycle them and use them in their building materials for churches __Sitalkes__- (429 BCE) Thracian King who invaded Macedonia with an army of 150,000. There he built a palace-city 21.5 acres in size. Made from mostly mud-brick and stucco. He marked a new era in which Thracian states struggled with their stronger neighbors. __Illyrians__- (500 BCE) Buried their rulers and elites with hoards of gold and silver and sacrifices of oxen and wild boar. An urn found in modern-day Slovenia is illustrated with images of life in an Illyrian court. Parading warriors, deer hunters, dignitaries being fed by long-haired women. __Garamantes__- modern-day North African region of Lybia called Fezzan. They dug irrigation tunnels under the Sahara desert, their 14 cities were surrounded by desert. They grew wheat and barley. Called by the Greeks, a slave-trading elite, driving four-horse chariots. their faces depicted by the Romans as ritually tattooed and scarred with ostrich-plume helmets. __Ceare__- Etruscan city, covered 150 acres and accommodated 20,000 inhabitants. Their tombs resembled the layout of their houses, as if to prepare the deceased for the afterlife. Warriors buried with chariots and weapons, and the wealthy with jewels and precious metals. __Gender roles and women’s rights__- Women were allowed to go out to games, and dine with men, in Greek and Roman societies the only women who did that were prostitutes. Elite women were also thought to be literate due to writing on combs and mirrors. 12. King Li became king in 857 b.c.. As king, King li was known for being more or less a failure. He was self-indulgent and heedless to advice. Because of these flaws, his fate was to destroy him. In 842 b.c., only fifteen years in rule he was driven out by rebels. His heir Xuan was installed and ruled for 46 years. Xuan held off barbarians and tried to confront natural disasters with magic. He died in 782 b.c., and then barbarians drove the people out of the ancestral lands. The Zhou moved east and now the land that was once a colony became a land of jostling states. 13.With the erosion of the Harrapan cities, two civilizations appeared. The first was in Ganges valley, which didn’t show many signs of Harrapan culture. The upanishads were oral tradition that became later written down. The word itself means the seat close to the master. One story talks about how the lesser gods challenged the supreme god Brahman and failed. The “Theory of everything” thus appeared like never before with the Ganges. We are not humans having a spiritual journey but we are spirits having a human journey. Also we are reincarnated you can advance toward perfection if we submerged in divinity. Now the second civilization was Sri Lanka. The lion kingdom gives a story that they were founded by seafarers from the indian Ocean Gulf of Cambay, on the edge of the Harrapan civ. They were large scale builders yet not as advanced as the Ganges. They had long dry spells and alot of rain. They created an artificial lake. 14. Two groups where big in North America, the Dorset and the Poverty Point people. In the far north, the Dorset built longhouses and stone alleys for driving caribou. They had blubber fueled lamps and they made salt lick out of caribou. Dorset were able to hunt where ever because of oil lamps and could make kayaks and harpoons. The poverty point people made jewelry with stone and copper. They had a semicircle ridge system and had a 70 feet high mound.
 * Thracians**- Thrace was located in the Aegean Sea, northeast of Greece. they wrote on odd materials such as mushrooms. Their writing has been indecipherable even though it was written in Greek letters. They practiced rites of fire.
 * Illyrians and Garamantes**- Located on opposite sides of the central Mediterranean.
 * Etruscans**- Etruria was located on the northern shore of the Mediterranean stretching across central Italy. Their soil had to be plowed nine times to be workable, which caused for a need of iron mining and the most cutting-edge smelting technology. They drained malarial marshes. The Etruscans were looked down upon by the Greek and Romans because they believed that the Etruscans took too much time on their appearance and wantonly displaying their bodies.

=Critical Questions=  //**What are the key questions around which Armesto frames Chapter Five? Why does he think it is important to address these questions (see p. 122)?**// a. Find and list key questions and identify there importance in ch. 5. b. Answer each questions listed, compare each question, and find how they are somehow linked together. b. Explain why Armesto believes these questions are critical. ( intellectual and spiritual achievements, rare initiatives, downfall of societies) //**How did the Phoenicians influence the settlement, growth, and culture of the Mediterranean region?**// a. Read about the Phoenicians in Armesto(pgs. 122-126). b. Describe the Pheonician trade system and the benefits of expansion. (craftsmanship, ships, colonies) c.Explain the Phoenicians’ achievments(writing system) as well as their weak points and their influence on other societies. //**How does the Assyrian Empire fit into the Conrad-Demarest model?**// a. State key points of the Conrad-Demarest model.(ideology, government) b. Read **The Assyrian Empire** and explain how the empire fits or doesn’t fit into the Conrad-Demarest Model. c. Explain the reasons why the Assyrian empire lost power. A. Identify the effects of the Assyrians on the Fertile Crescent. B. Identify the effects of the Babylonians on the Fertile Crescent. C. Identify how the rivalry between the Assyrians and Babylonians relates to the effects both cultures had on the Fertile Crescent. A. Describe Greece’s geographic situation in the Mediterranean. B. Describe Greek internal development. C. Describe Greek colonization. D. Describe how Greece’s internal development and colonization are linked to its geographic situation in the Mediterranean. A. Describe the old interpretation of Greek culture. B. Describe the new interpretation. C. Explain the basis for this change in interpretation. A. Identify other histories of Western Civilization. B. Identify Armesto’s interpretation. C. Explain why the above groups are vital for an understanding of Mediterranean culture.  How does the Zhou Dynasty fit Conrad-Demarest’s model of an empire? a. Describe Conrad-Demarest’s model of an empire (preconditions, reason for state’s success, rewards empire gets, reason for downfall) b. Explain significant points about the Zhou Dynasty as an empire c. Use the points from the Zhou Dynasty to show how it follows the Conrad-Demarest model How are the developments in the Indian subcontinent (South Asia) during the early first millennium BCE distinctively different from those of the Mediterranean, the Americas, or Africa? a. Explain what made Mediterranean, Americas, and Africa similar in development b. Explain Indian development (include factors that make Mediterranean, Americas, and Africa similar) c. Contrast the groups of subcontinents’ developmental factors (what advantages did one group have that the other did not?) What are the two primary models of recovery development in the second millennium BCE that Armesto presents? a. Describe the first primary model of recovery development (traditions and outside influence, where recovery happened) b. Describe the second model of recovery development (imperial ambitions, ways societies recovered from unsuccessful ambitions) c. Compare the two models =Migration Chart=
 * What long-term effects did the rivalry between the Assyrians and Babylonians have in the Fertile Crescent region?**
 * How did Greece’s geographic situation in the Mediterranean shape its internal development and colonization throughout the region?**
 * How have recent reinterpretations changed the way in which we understand and evaluate Greek culture?**
 * Why does Armesto consider an understanding of the Thracians, Illyrians, Garamantes, Etruscans, and others vital to the history of the Mediterranean? How does his revised interpretation, which includes these groups, differ from other histories of Western Civilization?**

 
 * Americas, Africa, and Eurasia Civilizations: 2000-500 B.C.E.**
 * **Region–>** || **Means of Cultural, Economic, Political Development–>** || **Distinctive Achievements** ||
 * //Greece// || //Seaborne trade; colonization of Mediterranean basin; extensive cultural exchange// || //New forms of government (demokrateia) and communities (poleis, ethne); colonial autonomy; highly developed written literature// ||
 * //Zhou Dynasty/ Warring States Period (China)// || //Centralized rule; elaborate court rituals; ancestor worship; trade and taxation; constant threat from barbarians// || //Political instability fosters intellectual endeavors// ||
 * //Ganges Valley// || //Highly developed spiritual literature (Vedas, Upanishads); agriculture with iron tools; little understanding of political, economic policies// || //First philosophies focused on doctrine of reincarnation, maya (matter as illusion), large-scale urban settlements, fortifications// ||
 * //Cretan// || //High architectural capabilities; agriculturally abundant; Skilled sailors; craftsmen// || //Great palaces; wealth// ||
 * //Mycenean// || //Fortified cities; organized routines for palace officials; far- reaching trade; fair warfare// || //Expensive methods of collecting, storing, and redistributing food// ||